Oct 28, · Compare and contrast the Russian Czarism of Peter, Elizabeth, and Catherine with the monarchies of England and France in the 18th and 19th centuries. Investigate the enormous significance of Catholic Orthodoxy as the dominant faith in Russia, and its meaning and influence in an empire populated by a minimal aristocracy and predominant serfdom The University Press, Cambridge, Mass., U. S. A. In preparing the present volume for the press, use has been freely made of several publications which have recently appeared in England. The Biographical Notice of the author is taken from an edition of the Essays, by A. Spiers, Ph. D. To this has Ancient and traditional practices. Preserved tattoos on ancient mummified human remains reveal that tattooing has been practiced throughout the world for millennia. In , scientific re-assessment of the age of the two oldest known tattooed mummies identified Ötzi as the oldest example then known. This body, with 61 tattoos, was found embedded in glacial ice in the Alps, and was dated to
Scythians - Wikipedia
The Scythians from Ancient Greek : Σκύθης SkúthēsΣκύθοι Skúthoi or Scyths [note 1]also known as Saka and Sakae Compare and contrast essay greece and persia Persian : ������ Sakā ; Ancient Egyptian : ������ ��romanized : sk���� �� sꜣg ; Ancient Greek : Σάκαι Sákai ; Latin : Sacaeand Ishkuzai Akkadian : ���������� Iškuzaya [1] [2] or Askuzai Akkadian : ������������ Asguzaya������������ mat Askuzaya������������ mat Ášguzaya [1] [3] compare and contrast essay greece and persia an ancient nomadic people living primarily in the region known as Scythiawhich today comprises the Eurasian steppes of Kazakhstan, the Russian steppes of the Siberian, Ural, Volga and Southern regions, and eastern Ukraine.
The Scythians are generally believed to have been of Iranian or Iranic; an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group origin; [12] they spoke a language of the Scythian branch of the Iranian languages[13] and practiced a variant of ancient Iranian religion.
In the 7th century BC, the Scythians crossed the Caucasus and frequently raided the Middle East along with the Cimmerians, playing an important role in the political developments of the region. The Scythians subsequently engaged in frequent conflicts with the Achaemenid Empireand suffered a major defeat against Macedonia in the 4th century BC [15] and were subsequently gradually conquered by the Sarmatiansa related Iranian people living to their east.
By the 3rd century AD, the Sarmatians and last remnants of the Scythians were dominated by the Alansand were being overwhelmed by the Goths. By the early Middle Agescompare and contrast essay greece and persia, the Scythians and the Sarmatians had been largely assimilated and absorbed by early Slavs.
The Scythians played an important part in the Silk Roada vast trade network connecting GreecePersiaIndia and Chinaperhaps contributing to the prosperity of those civilisations. These objects survive mainly in metal, forming a distinctive Scythian art. The name of the Scythians survived in the region of Scythia.
Early authors continued to use the term "Scythian", applying it to many groups unrelated to the original Scythians, such as HunsGoths, Turkic peoplesAvarsKhazarsand other unnamed nomads. Linguist Oswald Szemerényi studied synonyms of various origins for Scythian and differentiated the following terms: Skuthes ΣκύθηςSkudra ����������Sugᵘda ���������� and Saka. From this were descended the following exonyms:. From this was derived the Greek word Skṓlotoi Σκώλοτοιwhich, according to Herodotus, was the self-designation of the Royal Scythians, compare and contrast essay greece and persia.
Other sound changes have produced Sugᵘda. From an Iranian verbal root sak-"go, roam" and thus meaning "nomad" was derived the term Sakafrom which came the names:. Although both were closely related nomadic Iranians peoples, the Saka are to be distinguished from the European Scythians and inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin.
In scholarship, the term Scythians generally refers to the nomadic Iranian people who dominated the Pontic steppe from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC. The Scythians share several cultural similarities with other populations living to their east, in particular similar weapons, horse gear and Scythian artwhich has been referred to as the Scythian triad.
Scythologist Askold Ivantchik notes with dismay that the term "Scythian" has been used within both a broad and a narrow context, compare and contrast essay greece and persia, leading to a good deal of confusion. He reserves the term "Scythian" for the Iranian people dominating the Pontic steppe from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC. Modern interpretation of historical, archaeological and anthropological evidence has proposed two broad hypotheses on Scythian origins.
The first hypothesis, formerly more espoused by Soviet and then Russian researchers, roughly followed Herodotus' account of the Scythians as an Eastern Iranian -speaking group who arrived from Inner Asiai. from the area of Turkestan and western Siberia. The second hypothesis, according to Roman Ghirshman and others, proposes that the Scythian cultural complex emerged from local groups of the Srubna culture at the Compare and contrast essay greece and persia Sea coast, [38] although this is also associated with the Cimmerians.
According to Pavel Dolukhanov this proposal is supported by anthropological evidence which has found that Scythian skulls are similar to preceding findings from the Srubna culture, and distinct from those of the Central Asian Saka.
Mallorycompare and contrast essay greece and persia, the archaeological evidence is poor, and the Andronovo culture and "at least the compare and contrast essay greece and persia outliers of the Timber-grave culture" compare and contrast essay greece and persia be identified as Indo-Iranian.
The authors compare and contrast essay greece and persia that there is evidence for significant geneflow from East-Eurasia to West-Eurasia, from various migrations during the early Iron Age. They further found that the nomadic population of Central Asia, e.
the Scythians, were genetically heterogeneous and carried genetic affinities with populations from several other regions including the Far East and the southern Urals. The Scythians arrived in the Pontic Steppe in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE as part of a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe.
According to Herodotus, compare and contrast essay greece and persia, this movement started when the Massagetae migrated westwards, forcing the Scythians to the west across the Araxes river likely the Volga[43] following which the Scythians moved into the Pontic Steppe, displaced the Cimmerianswho were a nomadic Iranian people closely related to the Scythians, compare and contrast essay greece and persia, and conquered their territory.
Another Scythian-related nomadic people displaced by the Scythian expansion were the Agathyrsiwho were the oldest Iranian population [45] to have dominated the Pontic Steppe. Under Scythian pressure, the Cimmerians fled to the south along the coast of the Black Sea and reached Anatolia, and the Scythians in turn pursued the Cimmerians, following the coast of the Caspian Sea and arrived in the region of present-day Azerbaijanwhere they settled around what is today MingachevirGanja and the Mugan plaincompare and contrast essay greece and persia turned eastern Transcaucasia into their centre of operations until the early 6th century BCE.
Išpakaia was succeeded by Bartatuawho might have been his son. Bartatua was succeeded by his son, Madyeswho would bring Scythian power in Southwest Asia to its peak.
Madyes then imposed Scythian hegemony over Media for twenty-eight years on behalf of the Assyrians, thus starting a period which Herodotus called the "Scythian rule over Asia".
In BCE, the Thracian Treri tribe who had migrated across the Thracian Bosporus and invaded Anatolia[59] under their king Kobos and in alliance with the Cimmerians and the Lyciansattacked the kingdom of Lydia during the seventh year of the reign of the Lydian king Ardys.
By the s BCE, the Assyrian Empire began unravelling after the death of Ashurbanipal. In addition to internal instability within Assyria itself, Babylon revolted against the Assyrians in Compare and contrast essay greece and persia. Shortly after, some time between and BCE, the Scythians took advantage of the power vacuum created by the crumbling of the power of their former Assyrian allies and overran the Levant and reached as far south as Palestine until the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik I met them and convinced them to turn back by offering them gifts.
According to Babylonian records, starting around BCE, the Scythians were operating as allies of Cyaxares and the Medes in their war against Assyria, [56] and were finally expelled from Southwest Asia by the Medes in the s BCE, after which they retreated to the Pontic Steppe. One such splinter group likely joined the Medes and participated in the Median conquest of Urartu, [51] while some other Transcaucasian Scythian splinter groups might have retreated northwards to join the Scythians who had already moved into the Kuban Steppe previously.
In the 6th century BC, the Greeks had begun establishing settlements along the coasts and rivers of the Pontic steppe, coming in contact with the Scythians. Relations between the Greeks and the Scythians appear to have been peaceful, with the Scythians being substantially influenced by the Greeks, although the city of the Panticapaeum might have been destroyed by the Scythians in the mid-century BC.
During this time, the Scythian philosopher Anacharsis traveled to Athenswhere he made a great impression on the local people with his "barbarian wisdom".
By the late 6th century BC, the Archaemenid king Darius the Great had built Persia into becoming the most powerful empire in the world, stretching from Egypt to India. Planning an invasion of Greece, Darius first sought to secure his northern flank against Scythian introads. Thus, Darius declared war on the Scythians.
He then built a bridge across the Bosporus and easily defeated the Thracianscrossing the Danube into Scythian territory with a large armymen if one is to believe Herodotus in BC. Unable to receive support from neighboring nomadic peoples against the Persians, the Scythians evacuated their civilians and livestock to the north and adopted a scorched earth strategy, while simultaneously harassing the extensive Persian supply lines. Suffering heavy losses, the Persians reached as far as the Sea of Azovuntil Darius was compelled to enter into negotiations with Idanthyrsus, which, however, broke down.
Darius and compare and contrast essay greece and persia army eventually reatreated across the Danube back into Persia, and the Scythians thereafter earned a reputation of invincibility among neighboring peoples. In the aftermath of their defeat of the Persian invasion, Scythian power grew considerably, and they launched campaigns against their Thracian neighbors in the west.
A prominent king of the Scythians in the 5th century BC was Scyles. The Scythian offensive against the Thracians was checked by the Odrysian kingdom. The border between the Scythians and the Odrysian kingdom was thereafter set at the Danube, and relations between the two dynasties were good, with dynastic marriages frequently occurring. A similar fate was suffered by the Greek cities of the northwestern Black Sea coast and parts of the Crimea, over which the Scythians established political control.
A division of responsibility developed, with the Scythians holding the political and military power, the urban population carrying out trade, and the local sedentary population carrying out manual labor. The Scythians apparently obtained much of their wealth from their control over the slave trade from the north to Greece through the Greek Black Sea colonial ports of OlbiaChersonesosCimmerian Bosporusand Gorgippia.
When Herodotus wrote his Histories in the 5th century BC, Greeks distinguished Scythia Minorin present-day Romania and Bulgariafrom a Greater Scythia that extended eastwards for a day ride from the Danube River, across the steppes of today's East Ukraine to the lower Don basin. Scythian offensives against the Greek colonies of the northeastern Black Sea coast were largely unsuccessful, as the Greeks united under the leadership of the city of Panticapaeum and put up a vigorous defence.
These Greek cities developed into the Bosporan Kingdom. Meanwhile, several Greek colonies formerly under Scythian control began to reassert their independence.
It is possible that the Scythians were suffering from internal troubles during this time. The 4th century BC was a flowering of Scythian culture. The Scythian king Ateas managed to unite under his power the Scythian tribes living between the Maeotian marshes and the Danube, while simultaneously enroaching upon the Thracians. The westward expansion of Ateas brought him into conflict with Philip II of Macedon reigned to BCwith whom he had previously been allied, [8] who took military action against the Scythians in BC.
Ateas died in battle, and his empire disintegrated. In BC, his general Zopyrion invaded Scythian territory with a force of 30, men, but was routed and killed by the Scythians near Olbia. In the aftermath of conflict between Macedon and the Scythians, the Celts seem to have displaced the Scythians from the Balkans ; while in south Russia, a kindred tribe, the Sarmatians, gradually overwhelmed them.
In — BC, as noted by Diodorus Siculusthe Scythians, compare and contrast essay greece and persia, in alliance with the Bosporan Kingdom, defeated the Siraces in a great battle at the river Thatis. By the early 3rd century BC, the Scythian culture of the Pontic steppe suddenly disappears. The reasons for this are controversial, but the expansion of the Sarmatians certainly played a role.
The Scythians in turn shifted their focus towards the Greek cities of the Crimea. By around BC, the Scythians had largely withdrawn into the Crimea. By the time of Strabo's account the first decades ADthe Crimean Scythians had created a new kingdom extending from the lower Dnieper to the Crimea, centered at Scythian Neapolis near modern Simferopol. They had become more settled and were intermingling with the local populations, in particular the Tauriand were also subjected to Hellenization.
They maintained close relations with the Bosporan Kingdom, with whose dynasty they were linked by marriage, compare and contrast essay greece and persia. A separate Scythian territory, known as Scythia Minor, existed in modern-day Dobrujabut was of little significance.
In the 2nd century BC, the Scythian kings Skilurus and Palakus sought to extend their control over the Greek cities compare and contrast essay greece and persia of the Black Sea.
The Greek cities of Chersonesus and Compare and contrast essay greece and persia in turn requested the aid of Mithridates the Greatking of Pontuswhose general Diophantus defeated their armies in battle, took their capital and annexed their territory to the Bosporan Kingdom. In the years after the death of Mithridates, the Scythians had transitioned to a settled way of life and were assimilating into neighboring populations. They made a resurgence in the 1st century AD and laid siege to Chersonesos, who were obliged to seek help from the Roman Empire.
The Scythians were in turn defeated by Roman commander Tiberius Plautius Silvanus Aelianus. In subsequent centuries, remaining Scythians and Sarmatians were largely assimilated by early Slavs. Archaeological remains of the Scythians include kurgan tombs ranging from simple exemplars to elaborate "Royal kurgans" containing the "Scythian triad" of weapons, horse-harness, and Scythian-style wild-animal artgoldsilkand animal sacrifices, in places also with suspected human sacrifices.
Scythian archaeology also examines the remains of cities and fortifications. Scythian archaeology can be divided into three stages: [8]. In the south of Eastern Europecompare and contrast essay greece and persia, Early Scythian culture replaced sites of the so-called Novocherkassk culture. The date of this transition is disputed among archaeologists.
Dates ranging from the mid-8th century to the late 7th century BC have been compare and contrast essay greece and persia. A transition in the late 8th century BC has gained the most scholarly support. The origins of the Early Scythian culture is controversial. Many of its elements are of Central Asian origin, but the culture appears to have reached its ultimate form on the Pontic steppe, partially through the influence of North Caucasian elements and to a smaller extent compare and contrast essay greece and persia influence of Near Eastern elements.
The period in the 8th and 7th centuries BC when the Cimmerians and Scythians raided the Near East are ascribed to the later stages of the Early Scythian culture. Examples of Early Scythian burials in the Near East include those of Norşuntepe and İmirler. Objects of Early Scythian type have been found in Urartian fortresses such as TeishebainiBastam and Ayanis-kale.
Near Eastern influences are probably explained through objects made by Near Eastern craftsmen on behalf of Scythian chieftains. Early Scythian culture is known primarily from its funerary sites, because the Scythians at this time were nomads without permanent settlements.
Compare and contrast essay structure
, time: 5:25Essays of Michel de Montaigne
Oct 28, · Compare and contrast the Russian Czarism of Peter, Elizabeth, and Catherine with the monarchies of England and France in the 18th and 19th centuries. Investigate the enormous significance of Catholic Orthodoxy as the dominant faith in Russia, and its meaning and influence in an empire populated by a minimal aristocracy and predominant serfdom The Scythians played an important part in the Silk Road, a vast trade network connecting Greece, Persia, India and China, perhaps contributing to the prosperity of those civilisations. Settled metalworkers made portable decorative objects for the Scythians, forming a history of Scythian metalworking Ancient and traditional practices. Preserved tattoos on ancient mummified human remains reveal that tattooing has been practiced throughout the world for millennia. In , scientific re-assessment of the age of the two oldest known tattooed mummies identified Ötzi as the oldest example then known. This body, with 61 tattoos, was found embedded in glacial ice in the Alps, and was dated to
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